Although it is possible to define the specific effects of an individual component in-vitro, clinically the regulatory systems are inextricably intertwined. 101.11), so release of mast cell mediators can easily target neurons and vice versa this interplay is critical for the minute-by-minute local regulation necessary in the intestine.
Within the subepithelium, structural elements of ALPINES, including blood vessels, are in close proximity (see Fig. In addition, luminal mechanical (stroking and stretch) or chemical (toxins) stimuli can activate mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors, respectively, to in turn activate one or more arms of ALPINES. The last decade has seen an explosion of information on the influence of the luminal microbiome in health and disease states ( Chapter 3) ranging from traditional infectious diarrheas, including Clostridioides difficile infection ( Chapter 112) to obesity ( Chapters 7 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 and 8 Chapter 7 Chapter 8) and amyotropic lateral sclerosis. These interactions are compounded by factors with overlapping actions, many of them acting through cell-specific multiple receptors linked to varied signaling pathways. Originally restricted to “PINES,” this definition has been expanded, and although the distinctions between individual regulatory systems are getting blurred because of the considerable and differential crosstalk of the underlying pathways in health and disease states, the nomenclature is nevertheless useful ( Fig. The complex minute-by-minute regulation of intestinal function is achieved by the intricate coordination of extracellular factors, contributed by the intestinal microbial, autocrine, luminal, paracrine, immunologic, neural, and endocrine systems (MALPINES). More recently, increasing attention has been paid to the potential for within and among-population variation in endocrine regulation or responsiveness to serve as indicators of resistance or resilience to future challenges, or measures of evolutionary potential.Mark Feldman MD, in Sleisenger and Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease, 2021 Extracellular Regulation: Microbial, Autocrine, Luminal, Paracrine, Immunologic, Neural, and Endocrine Systems (Malpines) Because hormones are responsive to the environment, there has long been interest in their use as biomarkers of exposure to challenges. Through their actions on behavior, hormones also exert widespread influence over how organisms interact with their biotic and abiotic environments. A staggering diversity of phenotypic traits are mediated by hormones from early development through senescence.
Environmentally induced hormonal responses regulate phenotypic flexibility across timescales by altering physiological state, gene expression, and epigenetic marks. The endocrine system mediates interactions between genotypes and phenotypes, and between organisms and their environment. Increasingly comprehensive comparative analyses of endocrine data could provide insight into many interesting questions, including how rapidly changing environments are impacting phenotypes, why endocrine traits differ so remarkably within and across populations, and the evolution of plasticity. Here we highlight two recent developments that are facilitating such analyses: increasingly powerful and flexible phylogenetic comparative methods, and the release of two endocrine trait databases-HormoneBase (currently 474 species) and the Wildlife Endocrinology Information Network (currently 25 species)-that contain compiled measures of endocrine traits across vertebrates. Several recent phylogenetic comparative analyses and meta-analyses have begun to reveal the power and potential of these approaches to address key questions in integrative biology. Large-scale comparative analyses of the multitude of available endocrine data represent a particularly promising approach to addressing the function and evolution of these key phenotypic mediators, and their potential to serve as indicators of disturbance. Variation in other endocrine traits and mediators (e.g., receptor expression and binding globulins), and the hormonal response to standardized challenges (e.g., restraint, pharmacological challenges) are also increasingly measured in both captive and free-living populations. Thanks to decades of work by endocrinologists, circulating hormone levels have been measured in a diversity of organisms. Despite these important functions, the role of selection in shaping hormonal mediators of phenotype remains poorly understood.
Hormones are central mediators of genotype–phenotype and organism–environment interactions.